Expert System Industry In China

The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms highlighting science and innovation as the nation’s primary productive force.

The initial stages of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and encountered significant challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the starting China lagged many Western nations in regards to AI advancement. A majority of the research was led by researchers who had actually received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has actually gradually developed a nationwide program for artificial intelligence development and became among the leading countries in artificial intelligence research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to end up being a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company ought to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI development has substantially impacted Chinese society in many areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most affected by additional AI implementation.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in many elements as there are couple of current existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions planned to limit China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and advancement of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research and development did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was challenging so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more supplying federal government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually further expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study projects has dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the advancement of synthetic intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a significant milestone in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a tactical technology that has become a “focus of global competition”. [14]:2 The document urged significant investment in a number of strategic areas connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the celebration of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an important part to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”synthetic intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The very same year witnessed the development of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council mentioned the need for huge talent acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, in addition to public and personal financial investments. [14] Some of the specified motivations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique include the potential of expert system for commercial change, much better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to various fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists began establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for data collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy dialogue with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed issue over AI security dangers, consisting of abuse of information or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors created with generative synthetic intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which plans to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The 4th and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

Since 2024, many Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be crucial to the future of worldwide military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its place as a worldwide leader in AI research. Further, the State Council aims for AI to become “the main driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the international leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to blend state preparation and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market securities, developing asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a top research study top priority and ranks AI initially amongst “frontier industries” that the Chinese government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector typically supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing mainly concentrated on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The federal government funding likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research showed that, while China is massively purchasing all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and local commercial development and community. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private collaborations, and global collaborations and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had actually completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in controling AI services and imposing responsibilities on AI business, the general approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates an enormous quantity of accessible information for business and researchers, which provides an important benefit in the race of huge data. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest variety of web users, creating substantial quantities of information for device knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is among the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of data from its homeowners assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only conducive and important for corporations to more AI R&D however also uses tremendous financial prospective drawing in both worldwide and domestic firms to join the AI market. The drastic advancement of the details and communication innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets in recent years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures mentioning that tech business will be obligated to guarantee AI-generated content maintains the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects intellectual residential or commercial property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, business bear legal obligation for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the public, business must look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the model refuses to address certain questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that keeps libraries consisting of training data sets typically used for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies regional business with training data that CCP leaders think about allowable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese synthetic intelligence model DeepSeek has been reported to refuse to respond to questions relating to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-lasting economic development. In the past, standard markets in China have dealt with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, functional expenses are anticipated to decrease while a boost in performance generates profits development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to get rid of adoption barriers including expenses and lack of correctly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI development since of increasing demands for workers with sophisticated abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to develop a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on using unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is looking into numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report released afterwards showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of a broadening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China intends to use AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, producing a typical operating image, and speeding up battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which looks for to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software application, decision assistance, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few boundaries exist in between Chinese business business, university research laboratories, the military, and the main government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct means of directing AI development priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly developed for civilian purposes. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI technology from business companies and research organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information labeling to develop the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the potential to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, possibly giving it lawful access to U.S. innovation and intellectual home. [69] Chinese venture capital investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial countries,” from investing in U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has actually been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically considering that China faces difficulties in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the exact same proportion of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research study items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China particularly wish to attend to military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the very first kids’s instructional program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will remain in full decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI principles calling for important requirements in long-term research and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has been the most common subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many nationwide federal governments have established legislation addressing data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to resolve brand-new obstacles raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory framework classifying all sort of data collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are needed to classify their information into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and manage information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and applies pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach impartial choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, writes that AI-technology business might wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are intentional goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to international AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards securing an international technological supremacy – China missed both industrial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take advantage of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials showed remarkably eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and global security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating competence and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required change.” [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and massive untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Rather than fret about China’s development, it would be sensible for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI produces obstacles for holistic nationwide security, including the dangers that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will result in higher injustice of employees and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital build-up and political power in less economic actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary responsible star in the location of generative AI (creating brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI risks intensifying military competition between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential danger from expert system have actually happened. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is usually optimistic relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI exceed the risks, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees discovered that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% thought it must be controlled by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively utilized AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to identify Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a federal government deliberately using artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, especially by local community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of synthetic intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.